How Ritual Protects Warfighters

Drawing Lessons From the Past to Equip Warriors Today

By Chaplain (CPT) Kory Capps, USAF

May 1, 2023 | Military Chaplaincy Review, May 2023 Edition

Read Time: < 19 mins

When Celtic warriors returned from battle, they were immersed by their community in a series of baths, each one colder than the previous, signifying cleansing and cooling off from war. This process occurred with warriors fully clothed until the final immersion when their war garb was removed. After the last cleansing bath, they received a set of clothing that symbolized purity and transition to civilian life.1This combat ritual, like many others, is built on the conviction that protecting warriors is the sacred trust of the community that they defend. Three recurring movements characterize the warrior’s battle rhythm: prepare for combat, engage in combat, and return from combat. This cadence frames military life. Warrior communities have historically recognized the importance of helping their troops navigate each of these phases so that they can move from warrior to civilian.2Countless rituals, practices, and models around the care for warriors have emerged from these communal undertakings.3

The merit of ritual for safeguarding those who go to war is well established. A ritual is “a set of prescribed or stylized actions performed for their symbolic function in certain contexts.”4Combat rituals equip the soul for the moral and ethical demands of war, provide the boundaries between home and combat zones, safeguard warriors against moral injury, promote healthy reintegration into civilian life, encourage communal responsibility, alleviate individual guilt, and move warriors toward wholeness as they work through the layered impact of war.5

Not only do warrior cultures and sacred texts provide great models of combat rituals from the past, these practices may serve to safeguard warriors in the present. As Chaplains, promoting warrior health, which may include providing for combat rituals, is a facet of our vocational stewardship. Provisioning the men and women whom we serve with combat rituals is one way we as Chaplains go to war with and for them; it is one way to protect and defend those who are themselves protectors and defenders.

To equip Chaplains for such an important task, this article unpacks three areas of combat ritual. First, I explore historical samplings of how warrior cultures utilized ritual to ready warriors for battle and to help fighters return to their community. Second, I spotlight relevant biblical data on combat rituals. Third, I attend to the underlying aims of combat rituals while proposing a few ways to bring these practices into our current settings. By preceding in this way, I am able to show the existence and utility of combat rituals for warrior communities, unearth how historical practices are applicable to the present, and plot a way forward for implementing combat rituals today.

Warrior Cultures and Combat Rituals

I survey the practices of four different people groups: the Greeks, Mozambicans, Romans, and Semais. These historical samplings were selected for three reasons. First, they represent diverse geographical contexts. Second, they illustrate distinct cultural expressions of combat rituals. Third, they demonstrate varied emphases and purposes of combat rituals. I will overview their ritual frameworks and elucidate their unique contributions to this discussion while picking up notable examples from other cultures.

NO ONE LEFT BEHIND: THE ANCIENT GREEK WARRIOR

Ancient Greek warfare was replete with ritual. The “routine stages of Greek combat were dignified by formal moments or gestures that were communal and cohesive; frequently religious, involving sacrifice; and culturally distinctive.”6In preparation for war, the Greeks practiced four rituals:

1. consulting oracles/spiritual leaders for guidance on the decision to engage in warfare;

2. making vows to their deities and promising gifts in return for victory in battle;

3. making sacrifices to their deities for favor before battle;

4. conducting purification rites that would cleanse the warriors and enable them to face mortal danger.7

Post-combat rituals were equally well-developed in the Greek world. Historians have identified six practices:

1. erecting of trophies/memorials after a battle to commemorate the victory;

2. dedicating the spoils of war to the deity;

3. tithing and distribution of the spoils of war;

4. burying and honoring the war dead;

5. commemorating the dead through speeches;

6. sacrifices of gratitude to the deity.8

Greek war “triumphs, celebrations, departures, and arrivals enabled emotional participation of broad groups of the population and solidarity, psychological effort, and dedication to normative values.”9

The Ancient Greeks understood the gravity of sending their soldiers to battle. A high respect for the profession of arms reinforced their commitment to honor their fallen, no matter the cost. Risking one’s own life to bring back the fallen was “fundamental to morale and unit cohesion: it is the pledge of the group to the individual, which allows the group to demand in return that the individual risk his life.”10In fact, when Athenian commanders failed to recover all their dead, the result was a trial and the execution of six generals. Every Ancient Greek warrior was to be honored through burial; combat ritual in this culture ensures that no one was left behind.

CONFRONTING WAR TRAUMA: THE MOZAMBICAN WARRIOR

All war is marked by trauma, but civil wars wound in particular ways. At the close of a violent civil war in 1992, the warriors from both sides of the Mozambique conflict began to return home. How could a war-torn community put the pieces back together? How could they trust those who once fought against them? How would the veterans deal with the trauma of fighting their own people?

The Mozambican community answered these questions for their returning warriors by facilitating cleansing rituals that would allow “simultaneously, the confinement of past war actions as an exceptional situation and expurgate the individual from being in danger and being a danger to the community.”11The rituals move the warrior toward a fresh start while allowing the community to accept them back into the fold. In contrast to speech-oriented trauma care, this approach follows a communal and physical rite of passage structure.

The cleansing ritual follows five steps:

• diagnosis by the community healer to discern if the patient has been possessed by some spirit or has any health disorders, followed by the prescribed actions to cleanse, protect, and treat;

• the warrior reenacts his experiences in combat by demonstrating with a ritual pole how he killed or wounded his enemies, as he does this in the presence of the community, the burden of war is distributed and the warrior is embraced without judgment;
  

• if the warrior has been diagnosed with an evil spirit, then an exorcism ritual takes place which includes the use of incense and medicines;

• the warrior receives a ritual bath, including external and internal cleansing;

• the warrior is welcomed back into the community through a celebration.12

The ritual bath at the pinnacle of this cultural practice is freighted with meaning. The warrior is seated on a riverbank with only a garment around his waist. Surrounded by the community and their leaders, a goat is sacrificed and its blood is poured over the warrior’s head and body. The warrior undergoes washing and immersion in the river followed by the release of his waist garment down the river; the symbolic actions convey the removal of impurity and a clear break with the past. Immediately following this, the warrior is washed with a blend of medicines that are traditionally used for mourning purifications. Finally, the external cleansing rituals are followed by an internal cleansing practice as the warrior ingests two medicines.13The movement built into this post-war ritual can be a tutorial on effectively confronting combat trauma. The practice affirms that battle threatens the warrior’s identity, community, and future, and as such requires restorative action. Contemporary trauma research has demonstrated that rituals of reenactment and cleansing that are profoundly physiological, spiritual, and communal, move the warfighter toward wholeness.14

THE RITUAL OF TRIUMPH: THE ROMAN WARRIOR

The Ancient Roman empire was a massive warfighting machine. Historians have suggested that the annual rhythm of warfighting in the Roman world was reflected in various rituals that marked the start of the campaigning season in March and signaled its close in October.15Along with these seasonal rituals, the Romans had four practices that preceded going to battle:

1. a consul was held for prayers and guidance to determine if they should go to war;

2. sacrifices were made to the gods;

3. vows were made to the gods to provide them with gifts and games in the event of a successful outcome;

4. commanders donned the purple military cloak and crossed the boundary of the city, which conveyed the movement from the civilian sphere to combat.16

Roman battles were followed by warriors building memorials, burning enemy weapons, ritually burying their dead, receiving their commander’s address and witnessing the decoration of those who distinguished themselves in battle. However, the central post-war practice of the Romans was their triumph celebration, which allowed the conquering army “to transfer the size of the victory into the city.”17With three hundred triumph celebrations on record in Roman history, this practice is “by far the most important and best documented of Roman war rituals.”18Traditionally, the triumphal procession was characterized by the four following movements.

First, upon winning a battle, the commander was hailed a victor and decorated with laurels by his troops, which then led to requesting permission from the senate to triumphally process into the city. Second, after receiving senate approval, the commander formed up his army outside the city. The commander positioned the spoils of war, captives, musicians, and the animals to be sacrificed in front of his chariot. Following the chariot were the officers, troops and sometimes Roman citizens who had been liberated from their enemies. Third, the procession made its way through the city to the capitol where the commander placed his laurels before the gods and made sacrifices. Fourth, the festivities concluded with a feast and the inauguration of games that fulfilled the pre-war vows to the gods.19For the Roman warrior, triumph was the rubric under which combat ritual was understood and practiced. As one scholar says, in Rome, “there were no rituals of defeat.”20

THE BATTLE FOR PURITY: THE SEMAI WARRIOR

The Semai people of the Malaysian Peninsula represent a tribal form of warfighting and ritual. Historians suggest their eight pre-war practices are reflective of many small tribal communities. Their practices include:

1. prayers and offerings;

2. giving and wearing of magic amulets to make warriors invulnerable;

3. omens, dreams and visions to forecast the outcome of the war;

4. ritualized warrior ascetism such

   as sexual abstinence;

5. sacrifices to the spirits;

6. vows to return with victory;

7. decorations of the body by painting and use of feathers;

8. the ritual rehearsal and enactment of the battle.21

After battle, the Semai are integrated back into their community through five post-war rituals:

1. victory dances;

2. retaliatory violence on war captives;

3. communal feasts;

4. sacrifices to the spirits;

5. ritual mourning and penance.

These rites of passage signal freedom from danger, transition back to the normalcy of daily life, removal of guilt, and protection from evil spirits.22Unique to the Semai is the vigor with which they pursue war-time purification. They viewed the returning warrior as contaminated, which required them to undergo additional purification rituals. The killing of an enemy was considered to be such a dangerous act that some warriors withdrew from battle immediately after taking a life to initiate purification rites.23For tribal warriors, purity was paramount in every battle.Notable Practices from other Warrior Cultures.

Eskimos, Native Americans and African Zulus practiced the removal of bloodstained garments, purification rites, and isolation when their combatants returned from war.24Home-coming ritual required the Meru warrior of Kenya to sacrifice a ram and place a portion of it on his spear.25The Hittites, Egyptians, and Akkadians of the ancient Near East cleansed their weapons before and after battle, generating a common expression of the time: “I washed my weapon in the sea.”26The medieval Christian church formulated extensive post-war rituals focused on purification of the warrior’s conscience and soul. When returning from combat, soldiers were required to isolate from the community of faith, refrain from taking communion, do acts of penance, abstain from certain foods, practice spiritual disciplines in solitude, and seek cleansing for their consciences.27These actions were prescribed to enable a healthy shift back into civilian life.

The Bible and Combat Rituals

War is central to Scripture. In fact, on the importance of this theme one Old Testament scholar says, “the Bible is concerned with three subjects: religion, agriculture and war.”28Along with an abundance of biblical material on warfare, there are also examples of combat rituals. I will focus on the Old Testament.

According to one Old Testament scholar, there are five discernible pre-war rituals that characterize warfighting Israel. First, the call to war comes through the blast of a trumpet (Judges 3:27; 1 Samuel 13:3). Second, ritual purity is maintained throughout the camp (Joshua 3:5; 2 Samuel 1:21). Third, sacrifices are made to God and he is consulted (1 Samuel 7:9; Judges 20:13). Fourth, the leader proclaims to the army that God is with them and fights for them (Exodus 14:14; Joshua 6:2). Fifth, the army marches in to battle with certainty that God is with them (Judges 4:14; Deuteronomy 20:4). Sixth, the leaders admonish the warriors not to be afraid (Exodus 13:13; Deuteronomy 20:3; Joshua 8:1).29

The regularity of these rituals conveyed key truths to these warriors as they entered combat. They approached war with cleansed consciences and a right relationship with their maker. They acknowledged their fear and worked through it by placing their trust in God. They saw the confidence of their leaders and followed behind them with certainty. These rituals readied the Israelite warriors for the demands of martial engagement.30

Some Old Testament scholars have highlighted five post-war rituals utilized by Israelite warriors. First, the purification of warriors, captives, and objects through isolation and cleansing with water and/or fire (Numbers 31:13-24). Second, the distribution of the spoils of war to God, the temple priests, and the community (Deuteronomy 20:10-18; Joshua 7:1). Third, the construction of memorials and monuments in victory and defeat (Exodus 17:14-16; Numbers 31:48-54). Fourth, a time of celebration and procession, which included singing, feasting, and thanksgiving (Exodus 15:1-18, 20-21). And fifth, the practice of corporate lament (2 Samuel 1:19-27; Psalms 44; 60; 74).31

These practices, also characteristic of Israel’s contemporaries, promoted wellness and wholeness in warriors.32Israelite warriors were ritually prepared for battle and were ritually returned home. The residual defilement, guilt, and shame of combat was met with purification, forgiveness, and cleansing. Communal solidarity was expressed through sharing the spoils of war and building memorials that acknowledged the experiences of war. The full expression of emotion was given outlet within the community of faith, freeing the warrior to process grief and celebrate victory.

Combat Rituals and Protecting our Warriors

Whether we are discussing the tribal societies of Malaysia and Africa, the war-machines of Greece and Rome, or the ancient Near Eastern warriors of Israel and Egypt, all these people groups surround their fighters with protective rituals as they come and go from combat. This suggests that war rituals transcend time, geography, and culture.33Remarkably, there is significant overlap and consistency in these practices from around the globe pointing to a kind of collective intuition regarding warrior care. I conclude by identifying four implicit goals of the combat rituals we have observed, their contemporary significance for warriors, and a few suggestions for implementation in our contexts.

HELPING WARRIORS REFRAME THEIR EXPERIENCES

The overarching aim of war rituals is to “reframe the way warriors and communities conceive, experience, and respond to the realities of combat.”34The presence of sacrifices, prayers, spiritual guides, and memorials allows “soldiers to ‘emplot’ their local and limited actions within a larger framework that is shared by the community as a whole and, within many societies, by the deity whose wishes and actions the soldiers are thought to have carried out.”35As Chaplains, we are storytellers who help warriors grasp their sacred vocations as protectors and embrace their role in a much larger story. Notably, contemporary trauma studies argue that reframing painful experiences is an essential component of healing from the impacts of war.36

HELPING WARRIORS KNOW THEY BELONG

Community is at the heart of combat ritual; warriors are never meant to be alone. The common factor in celebration or lament, sacrifice or prayer, purification or distributing spoils is togetherness. Whether the ritual is one of going or coming, community is the thread running through it all. This is critical as “returning warriors are in need of practices that give a sense that the moral burden and responsibility are equally distributed among soldiers, leaders, and their community.”37Further, the practice of distributing the spoils of war across the community would “reframe the returning warriors’ conception of the combat, resisting the sense that the warfare had been about selfish acquisition of plunder” while the practice of corporate lament “potentially served as a mechanism to forge a sense of community and mutuality in the face of trauma.”38Specialists in moral injury, who focus on the internal wounds of “doing wrong, being wronged or witnessing wrongs,” believe that warrior reintegration depends on the community embracing the responsibility of warfare and the trauma it carries.39To say it another way, community is the key to warrior wellness and combat rituals are avenues for protection and healing.

HELPING WARRIORS KNOW THEIR BOUNDARIES

Combat rituals draw a line for warriors, they mark the boundaries between war and peace, go-time, slow-time, civilian life and combatant life. These lines are critical, as danger is sure to follow when they get blurred. These boundaries provide a “transitional or liminal space between the war space and the community space, with the rituals as practices that help warriors modulate out of the physical and existential battle space.”40Curiously, the military culture provides ritual at many key moments in a Service member’s career, but has largely failed to ritualize the deployment rhythm. Providing this “in-between space” is essential for warriors as they prepare for combat and process their experiences upon return. There is danger in rushing this movement and not giving warriors ample time in this space. As Chaplains, we can protect this space, labor to expand it, and inhabit it with our warriors.

HELPING WARRIORS KEEP THEMSELVES INTACT

War overwhelms the senses and touches the recesses of the soul; it marks an individual. Staying in one piece in the profession of arms is difficult. Warriors are issued gear to protect them physically. Rituals are another form of protective issue; they can provide moral, spiritual, and psychological salve. Coming to grips with death, settling the soul before God, receiving purification rites, crossing the combatant boundary, leaning on the community, processing war trauma, and the art of celebrating while grieving are all ritual acts that keep the warrior’s soul intact. For this reason, many military scholars and psychologists advocate for the “establishment of communal rituals with religious force for both returning soldiers and the sending community.”41

SOME SUGGESTIONS FOR PRACTITIONERS

I have argued that proper combat preparation, engagement, and return are fundamental to the well-being of the warfighter. As practitioners, how can we build on this discussion and impact our people? I suggest four things. First, immerse yourself in the untapped resources of other warrior cultures, the contributions of other theological texts, and the psychological works that address the space between combat, trauma, and ritual. Second, expose your warriors to the intriguing history of combat rituals while showing them the upside of such practices on their well-being. Third, identify existing combat rituals within your setting and explore ways to infuse fresh life into them. Building upon existing rituals may be the most effective way to introduce new practices while enhancing old ones. Fourth, where possible move from tactical to operational and strategic implementation. How can we as Chaplains inform and advise influential leaders on these vital practices? Where can we bring organizational change through combat ritual? In what ways can these concepts impact our cultures and shape warrior care?

I have discussed how combat rituals are expressed in different cultures, summarized the biblical-theological contribution to such practices, and identified the protective function of these rituals for warfighters. For Chaplains, care-givers, and practitioners in the trenches, it is my belief that combat rituals are critical resources for fulfilling the sacred duty of protecting our warriors as they protect us.

Notes